ME is the only state that has banned the land application of biosolids containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).
Some states developed strategies to monitor land application of biosolids containing PFAS.
PFAS land application regulation increased the cost of waste management.
PFAS builds up in biosolids used in land application.
PFAS are compounds that build up in the environment, raising health concern and affecting agricultural lands (USDA 2021). PFAS can be found in biosolids generated from wastewater system containing residuals of products like cleaning supplies and cookware (Gravesen et al. 2023).
A biosolid is a treated sewage sludge that meets all U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulation standards (40 C.F.R. Part 503) and is intended for land application as a form of soil conditioner or fertilizer (EPA 2025). These biosolids are used as land application, which is the use of biosolids to improve soil health and as a fertilizer (USDA 2021). Although land application improves soil health and is a cost effective form of fertilizer, (EPA 2025); there is growing concern of the agricultural impact of this practice. One example is the PFAS contamination of over 70 farms in ME, where some have ceased food production (Schauffler 2024).
States regulate biosolids for land application to address PFAS contamination.
Although no federal criteria have been established for PFAS in biosolids regulation under 40 C.F.R. Part 503, states are regulating PFAS in biosolids for land application (Lautanen et al. 2024). States that actively regulate PFAS on land application include CO, CT, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, NH, NY, WI. MO does not regulate PFAS in land applied biosolids (Gallagher 2024, MODNR 2023). ME banned land application and sale of biosolids from wastewater treatment plant (MRS §1306(7)). In 2024, MD passed a law that requires monitoring and active regulation of PFAS (SB 09656). CT banned the sale of biosolids containing PFAS for land application, as well as the sale of products (cookware, cosmetics, etc.) containing PFAS (sSB 292). NH and MA require the sampling of biosolids for PFAS (MADEP 2025; NHDES 2022). CO, MD, MI, MN, NY, WI developed similar strategies with restrictions for land application of biosolids (Table 1).
Table 1. Strategies implemented by states on PFAS regulation of land applied biosolids based on concentration.
| State | PFAS used as indicator | Tier 4 (µg/kg) | Tier 3 (µg/kg) | Tier 2 (µg/kg) | Tier 1 (µg/kg) |
| CO | PFOS | ≥ 50 | NA* | ≤50 | NA* |
| MD | PFOS or PFOA | ≥ 100 | 50 - 99 | 20 - 49 | ≤20 |
| MI | PFOS or PFOA | ≥ 100 | 20 - 99 | NA* | ≤20 |
| MN | PFOS or PFOA | ≥125 | 50 - 24 | 20 - 49 | ≤20 |
| NY | PFOS or PFOA | ≥ 50 | NA* | 21- 49 | ≤20 |
| WI | PFOS or PFOA | ≥150 | 50 - 149 | 21- 49 | ≤20 |
Concentrations are presented in micrograms (µg) of PFAS per kilogram(kg) of biosolid. For reference 100 µg = 0.1 mg. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluoro octane sulfonate (PFOS) are used as indicators because they are the most widely studied among thousands of classified PFAS (USDA 2021). *NA - Not applicable as some states have two or three tiers while others have four tiers.
Interventions to mitigate PFAS contamination in land-applied biosolids are categorized into tiers (Table 1). They include:
Tier 4: Land application is prohibited, and alternative disposal methods are required. The regulating body is notified immediately, and a source identification and reduction plan are implemented. The biosolid source is then sampled (CDPHE 2025; EGLE 2024; MDE 2024; MPCA 2024; WI DNR 2024). In NY, recycling is banned until PFAS concentrations fall below 20 µg/kg (NYDEC 2023).
Tier 3: The waste management facilities must provide PFAS analytical results to regulating bodies and landowners prior to land application. Reduced application rates (1.5 dry tons/acre) or an alternative risk mitigation strategy approved by the regulating body are required. The biosolid source must be sampled, and a source reduction plan must be initiated. When biosolids are applied, cumulative biosolid application rates at each land application site must be tracked and reported to the regulating body. Additional management options may also be required (EGLE 2024; MDE 2024; MPCA 2024; WI DNR 2024).
Tier 2: The waste management facilities must provide PFAS analytical results to landowners prior to land application or, in states like CO, to the regulating body. When applied, cumulative application rates at each land application site must be tracked and reported to the regulating body (CDPHE 2025; MDE 2024; MPCA 2024; NYDEC 2023; WI DNR 2024).
Tier 1: Biosolids can be land-applied with no additional PFAS requirements. Land application is permitted following biosolid regulations consistent with each state's specific requirements (EGLE 2024; MDE 2024; MPCA 2024; NYDEC 2023; WI DNR 2024).
PFAS regulations on land application increased management costs.
One study estimated a 37% increase in PFAS biosolid management costs in states with some level of PFAS regulation (CDM Smith 2020). Facilities in these states experienced a twofold or greater increase in the cost of biosolid management. For example, in MI, management costs per wet ton (wt) increased from $20/wt in 2018 to $120/wt after the establishment of PFAS regulations. Similarly, Concord city, NH began transporting biosolids to Canada costing an additional $600,000 annually.
In ME, the ban on land application has led to biosolid accumulation and limited disposal outlets (Brown & Caldwell 2023). Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) struggle with cost-effective biosolid management, leading to sludge buildup and compliance risks. Emergency sludge transport to Canada has doubled costs, and strained utility budgets. ME is not expected to have capacity for biosolid management in the next five years.
References
33 United States Code §1251 et seq. (1972) Congressional declaration of goals and policy. https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title33/chapter26&edition=prelim
38 Main Revised Statute §1306(7) (2021) Prohibitions on land application of sludge and sale and distribution of compost and other agricultural products and materials containing sludge and septage. https://legislature.maine.gov/statutes/38/title38sec1306.html
40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 503 (1994) Land Application of Sewage Sludge. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-11/documents/land-application-sewage-sludge.pdf
Brown and Caldwell (2023) An Evaluation of Biosolids Management in Maine and Recommendations for the Future. https://d12v9rtnomnebu.cloudfront.net/diveimages/Maine_DEP_Biosolids_Management_Final_Report_-_2024_02_21_1.pdf
Gravesen CR, Lee LS, Choi YJ, Silveira ML, Judy JD (2023) PFAS release from wastewater residuals as a function of composition and production practices. Environmental Pollution, 322:121167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121167
CDM Smith (2020) Cost Analysis of the Impacts on Municipal Utilities and Biosolids Management to Address PFAS Contamination. https://www.cdmsmith.com/-/media/White-Papers/PFAS-on-Biosolids.pdf
Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) (2025) Requirement – Colorado Biosolids-PFAS Interim Strategy. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bZk4wBZ8AK3nDTSQFVi4R1R7KO4L2Fk6/view
Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) (2024a) Interim Strategy – Land Application of Biosolids Containing PFAS. https://www.michigan.gov/egle/about/organization/water-resources/biosolids/pfas-related
Gallagher O (2024) Water Pollution Control Branch PFAS Roadmap. https://dnr.mo.gov/document/pfas-roadmap
Lautanen EL, Kray JB, Tupper JA (2024) Wastewater, Biosolids Come Under PFAS Regulation. LINK
Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Forestry (MEDACF) (2022) Fund to Address PFAS Contamination. https://www.maine.gov/dacf/ag/pfas/pfas-fund.shtml
Maryland Department of Environment (MDE) (2024) PFAS in biosolids. LINK
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (MADEP) (2025) PFAS in Residuals. https://www.mass.gov/info-details/pfas-in-residuals
Michigan Department Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) (2024) Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) recommended minimum laboratory analyte lists. LINK
Minnesota pollution Control Agency (MPCA) (2024) Minnesota Biosolids PFAS Strategy for land application of biosolids. LINK
Missouri Department of Natural Resources (MODNR) (2023) Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Biosolids, RCRA and CERCLA Regulation Workgroup Report. https://dnr.mo.gov/document/polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas-biosolids-rcra-cercla-regulation-workgroup-report-0
New Hampshire Department of Environmental services (NHDES) (2022) Interim Best Management Practices for Emerging Contaminants in Certified Biosolids. https://www.des.nh.gov/sites/g/files/ehbemt341/files/documents/web-29.pdf
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) (2023) Program Policy - Biosolids Recycling in New York State – Interim Strategy for the Control of PFAS Compounds. https://extapps.dec.ny.gov/docs/materials_minerals_pdf/dmm7.pdf
sSB 292, Connecticut General Assembly (CT 2024) An act concerning the use of pfas in certain products. https://www.cga.ct.gov/2024/ACT/PA/PDF/2024PA-00059-R00SB-00292-PA.PDF
SB 09656, 2024 Regular Session (MD 2024) Environment - Water Pollution Control - Protecting State Waters from PFAS Pollution Act. https://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Legislation/Details/SB0956?ys=2024RS
Schauffler M (2024) A call for sludge regulation. LINK
State of Vermont, Agency of Natural Resources Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) (2023) Vermont’s PFAS Roadmap Summary. https://dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/documents/DEC-PFAS-Roadmap-Summary-December-2023-Final.pdf
U.S. Department of Agriculture (2021) Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). https://www.fsa.usda.gov/tools/informational/fact-sheets/polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025) Land Application of Biosolids. https://www.epa.gov/biosolids/land-application-biosolids
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WI DNR) (2024) Interim Strategy for Land Application of Biosolids and Industrial Sludges Containing PFAS. https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/sites/default/files/topic/PFAS/PFAS_BiosolidsInterimStrategy.pdf
