Phonics connects a word’s spelling to its sound and meaning.
Structured phonics instruction increases word recognition.
Even with comprehensive phonics instruction, national test scores for reading proficiency have not improved since 1992.
Phonics teaches the relationship between written letters and spoken sounds (Shanahan 2005). There are two dominant approaches to modern reading instruction: the Science of Reading (SoR) and Balanced Literacy (BL). Phonics is central to both teaching approaches, but its role, structure, and intensity differ in the two approaches.
The main SoR approach to recognize words is decoding. Decoding is the process of turning written letters into blended sounds to pronounce an unfamiliar word, or “sounding it out” (National Reading Panel (NRP) 2000). Phonics builds strong word recognition by training a reader to look at a string of letters, connect each letter to its sound, and immediately link to a word in their memory (Ehri 2014). This rapid, consistent process turns "sounding it out” into a word recognized on sight. As a reader’s store of sight words grows, they can shift attention from figuring out words to understanding the text (NRP 2000).
The BL approach combines skill instruction, such as phonics, with exposure to text through books and materials (Pressley 2002). This approach features phonics instruction that is delivered briefly and embedded within the context of reading texts (Sayag & Glendill 2024). BL encourages students to use context clues, like pictures or the first letter, to guess an unknown word (Teirney & Pearson 2024). Studies on student achievement in BL classrooms confirm reading improvement is tied to the intensity of skill-based instruction, challenging BL’s brief embedded phonics instruction (Bitter et al. 2009).
In 2000, Congress convened a group of experts to form the National Reading Panel (NRP) (Shanahan 2005). The NRP reviewed twenty years of research into how reading is taught and concluded that effective reading instruction has five essential components (NRP 2000):
They also found that clear, step-by-step instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics increased students’ ability to recognize words, which increased fluency and vocabulary (Shanahan 2005, NRP 2000).
The SoR framework was built on the NRP’s findings and was codified into the Reading First policies of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 (Duke & Cartwright 2021). The NCLB provided billions of dollars to states to implement the SoR (Gamse et al. 2008). For more information on current state-level policies to implement the SoR, see the Science Note Phonics Use in Schools.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), often called The Nation’s Report Card, measures how well students can read, understand, and think about text (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) 2025). Reading ability is scored from 0 – 500 with three main levels: basic, proficient, and advanced. The fourth-grade reading test checks for reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension (NAEP 2025, Shanahan et al. 2010). The national average score and the percentage of fourth-grade students reading proficiently stayed flat between the early 1990s and 2024 (Figure 1, NCES 2024). In 2024, the national average score was 214 points and 60% of fourth-grade students were reading proficiently or better. In 2024, MO had an average score of 212 points and 58% of fourth graders at or above proficient reading level (NCES 2024).
Research shows that instruction may not be effectively transitioning students from decoding words to comprehending complex texts because students do not have adequate practice time with skills beyond decoding (National Assessment Governing Board 2024, Gamse et al. 2008). Relatedly, high rates of student absenteeism interfere with instruction and practice. For example, 31% of fourth graders reportedly missed three or more days of school in the month before their assessment (NCES 2024).
Figure 1. National trends in fourth grade reading performance (1992 – 2024). Long-term trends in reading proficiency for fourth-grade students nationwide. The average NAEP reading score has remained relatively flat since 1992. Scores for all but the highest-performing students (90th percentile) have declined since 2022. MO scores in 2024 were not significantly different from national scores. Figure from National Assessment Governing Board 2024.
References
Bitter C, O’Day J, Gubbins P, Socias M (2009) What Works to Improve Student Literacy Achievement? An Examination of Instructional Practices in Balanced Literacy Approach. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 14(1): 17-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824660802715403
Davidson AH (2025) NAEP Achievement Levels Validity Argument Report. National Assessment Governing Board. https://www.nagb.gov/content/dam/nagb/en/documents/naep/NAEP-AL-VALIDITY-ARGUMENT-REPORT.pdf
Duke NK and Cartwright KB (2021) The Science of Reading Progresses: Communicating Advances Beyond the Simple View of Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1): S25-S44. https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rrq.411
Ehri LC (2014) Orthographic Mapping in the Acquisition of Sight Word Reading, Spelling Memory, and Vocabulary Learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18: 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356
Gamse BC, Jacob RT, Horst M, Boulay B, Unlu F. (2008). Reading First Impact Study Final Report (NCEE 2009-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503344.pdf
National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB) (2024). The nation's report card: 2024 reading assessment. U.S. Department of Education. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reports/reading/2024/g4_8/?grade=4
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2025) Scale scores and NAEP Achievement Levels. Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/guides/scores_achv.aspx#achievement
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (2024) Reading Assessment (Grades 4 and 8). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://www.nagb.gov/naep/reading.html
National Reading Panel Report (2000) Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Development. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. § 6319 (2002). https://www.congress.gov/107/plaws/publ110/PLAW-107publ110.pdf
Pressley M, Roehrig A, Bogner K, Raphael LM (2002) Balanced Literacy Instruction. Focus on Exceptional Children, 35(5): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.17161/fec.v34i5.6788
Sayag EK, Gendill L (2024) Legislatures Lead the Way with “Science of Reading” Approach. National Council of State Legislatures (NCSL). https://www.ncsl.org/state-legislatures-news/details/legislatures-lead-the-way-with-science-of-reading-approach
Shanahan T, Callison K, Carriere C, Duke NK, Pearson PD, et al. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED512029.pdf
Shanahan T (2005) The National Reading Panel Report: Practical advice for teachers. Learning Point Associates. https://thereadingforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Shanahan.pdf
Tierney RJ, Pearson PD (2024) Fact-Checking the Science of Reading: Opening the Conversation. Literacy Research Commons. https://literacyresearchcommons.org
