Solar PV systems must withstand extreme weather conditions during their lifespan.
Glass encapsulation prevents cadmium and lead leaching from double glass panels during fires.
Poor structural support can cause solar panels to break in hurricane-force winds.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are installed in open areas to capture solar energy. PV modules are the major component exposed to extreme conditions such as wind, hail, lightning, high temperatures, wildfire, and floods over their 25–30-year lifespan (Okonkwo et al. 2025, Bošnjaković et al. 2023, Patt et al. 2010).
International standard requires solar panels to withstand 11 impacts of about one inch hailstones at 51 mph (Kurtz et al. 2009). An analysis showed that panels can endure ice balls from half inch to three inches at speeds between 36 mph to 88 mph (Xie 2023). Hail stones moving faster than 157 mph cause deformation and shear stresses on the plate core. Both invisible and visible damage can occur from one inch, but beyond 1.64 inches, the amount of visible damage rises (Teule et al. 2019). However, roof orientation relative to the hailstorm and winds can impact solar panels more than hail size. Direction away from the hailstorm reduces damage.
One study analyzed the potential health impacts associated with emissions of lead and cadmium from field breakage of crystalline silicone (c-Si) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules in residential, commercial, and utility-scale systems (Sinha et al. 2019). Results indicated that values in soil, air, and groundwater were below U.S. Environmental Protection Agency health screening, but potential ecological risks were not evaluated in the study.
High temperatures can impact PV systems. Research on PV systems during hot temperatures indicates that panel frame, panel, and cable insulation can reach temperatures up to 158°F, 185°F, and 140°F, respectively (Bošnjaković et al. 2023). They are not flammable at those temperatures, and proper roof insulation prevents fire risks. However, dry leaves and flammable materials on or under hot panels pose a fire hazard. Large-scale systems on degraded land with vegetation also pose fire risks.
Solar PV systems are expected to be affected or destroyed by more frequent wildfires in the coming years (U.S. Department of Energy n.a.). Wildfire probability analysis estimates that by 2050 approximately 79.8 million homes will have some level of wildfire, ranging from minimal to extreme risk (First Street 2022).
The environmental risks for PV modules during fires have been tested by simulating temperatures in structure fires, i.e. fires involving various types of buildings. One study tested the release of cadmium telluride (CdTe) in solar modules by heating sections of a double-glass CdTe solar module to 2012°F (Fthenakis et al. 2005). The front and back of the glass panels softened and joined. The glass encapsulated and prevented CdTe from evaporating and being released in the atmosphere.
Perovskite solar cells are a new solar technology (Rencheck et al. 2024, Ren et al. 2022). Analysis of perovskite modules heated at 1400°F found that glass encapsulation captures and prevents the release of lead monoxide and lead dioxide (Conings et al. 2019). The chances of being harmed by lead exposure during a structure fire is low, and individuals may be incapacitated from the concentration of toxic gases released by various synthetic materials such as carpeting or furniture when burned. However, lead-containing PV installations poses a long-term risk of lead poisoning.
Water to extinguish the fires can transport lead, cadmium, and selenium to the soil and groundwater. Analysis of these contaminants indicates potential impacts, but levels were low and did not exceed safety standards of contamination (Sinha et al. 2018).
Numerical simulations show that ground-mounted PV systems can handle wind speeds up to 112 mph (Bošnjaković et al. 2023). Research indicates that PV systems withstood Hurricane Sandy with minimal damage and continued electricity production (Fthenakis 2013). However, solar PV systems and mounting structures in Puerto Rico suffered extensive damage during Hurricane Maria in 2017 due to the severe wind speeds (Kwasinski 2018). Field examinations of hurricane-damaged PV systems in 2017 revealed that system design, construction, and operation significantly influence survival in severe weather (Robinson & Shepherd 2018). Post-storm inspection data show that high wind speeds caused some module models to burst from strong pressures, and modules were often poorly supported, leading to breakage (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Damaged PV systems after 2017 hurricane. Unsuitable clamping fasteners lead to PV system loss during a 2017 hurricane. Image from Robinson and Sheperd (2018).
References
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